circuit

The process of circuit design can cover systems ranging from complex electronic systems all the way down to the individual transistors within an integrated circuit. For simple circuits the design process can often be done by one person without needing a planned or structured design process, but for more complex designs, teams of designers following a systematic approach with intelligently guided computer simulation are becoming increasingly common.

Formal circuit design usually involves the following stages:

sometimes, writing the requirement specification after liaising with the customer
writing a technical proposal to meet the requirements of the customer specification
synthesising on paper a schematic circuit diagram, an abstract electrical or electronic circuit that will meet the specifications
calculating the component values to meet the operating specifications under specified conditions
performing simulations to verify the correctness of the design
building a breadboard or other prototype version of the design and testing against specification
making any alterations to the circuit to achieve compliance
choosing a method of construction as well as all the parts and materials to be used
presenting component and layout information to draughtspersons, and layout and mechanical engineers, for prototype production
testing or type-testing a number of prototypes to ensure compliance with customer reqiurements
signing and approving the final manufacturing

Prototyping is a means of exploring ideas before an investment is made in them. Depending on the scope of the prototype and the level of detail required, prototypes can be built at any time during the project. Sometimes they are created early in the project, during the planning and specification phase, commonly using a process known as breadboarding; that's when the need for exploration is greatest, and when the time investment needed is most viable. Later in the cycle packaging mock-ups are used to explore appearance and usability, and occasionally a circuit will need to be modified to take these factors into account.

Electronics is the study of the flow of charge through various materials and devices such as semiconductors, resistors, inductors, capacitors, nano-structures and vacuum tubes. Although considered to be a theoretical branch of physics, the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems is an essential technique in the fields of electronic engineering and computer engineering.

The study of new semiconductor devices and surrounding technology is sometimes considered a branch of physics. This article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics.

Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. In most cases the number of different states of a node is two, represented by two voltage levels labeled "Low"(0) and "High"(1). Often "Low" will be near zero volts and "High" will be at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use.

Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital Signal Processors are another example.

Building-blocks:

Logic gates
Adders
Binary Multipliers
Flip-Flops
Counters
Registers
Multiplexers
Schmitt triggers
Highly integrated devices:

Microprocessors
Microcontrollers
Application-specific integrated circuit(ASIC)
Digital signal processor (DSP)
Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)

Mixed-signal circuits

Main article: Mixed-signal integrated circuit
Mixed-signal circuits refers to integrated circuits (ICs) which have both analog circuits and digital circuits combined on a single semiconductor die or on the same circuit board. Mixed-signal circuits are becoming increasingly common. Mixed circuits are usually used to control an analog device using digital logic, for example the speed of a motor. Analog to digital converters and digital to analog converters are the primary examples. Other examples are transmission gates and buffers.

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